1. The urban schools
In parallel with the rise in the century monastic schools. XII urban schools, also called bishops or collegiate.
In these schools, whose golden age is opened at the same time the emergence of an urban middle class, a trend towards completely different from the monastic schools.
They intend to restore the seven liberal arts and the three parts of philosophy: logic, physics, ethics. The various teachers, unable to comment on the Greek philosophers, is seeking to establish an alliance between grammar, rhetoric and ethics. The aim is to rediscover the moral teaching of the ancients, but integrating the elements in a summary Christian higher education. Their method consists of reading Moral of the works of antiquity, discuss, chapter by chapter according to the rules of allegory that leaves more freedom to the commentator. They are made up of so
anthologies in which are grouped according to a staff or as traditional as one of the four cardinal virtues, moral texts of the various authors. The most famous, the Florilegium Gallicanum, cites the texts with the names of the authors.
So, for example, we learn a series of notes on Horace's moral poverty, sull'ubriachezza, good marital relationship.
The most famous is that urban school of Chartres. It passes from the anthology of works by systematic staff development enriched by numerous references.
Il maestro più famoso della scuola è Bernardo di Chartres (m. 1130), il quale abituava i suoi allievi a raccogliere e raggruppare i brani morali degli autori studiati.
Un altro grande maestro è Guglielmo di Conches (m. 1145), al viene attribuito il Moralium dogma philosophorum, che non è altro che un adattamento del De officiis di Cicerone.
Giovanni di Salisbury (m. 1180), vescovo di Chartres, insegna una morale basata sull'idea del bene e della virtù. Distribuisce i doveri dell'individuo secondo quattro temi: la ricerca del bene proprio; il disprezzo del mondo; il rispetto del prossimo; la religione verso Dio. In lui si trovano gli elementi di una morale familiare e politica.
2. Pietro Abelard (1079-1142)
The most representative of the urban school is certainly Abelard. He was born at Le Pallet near Nantes in 1079 and died at Chalon sur Saone in 1142. It was a real drifter enough to be called "peripateticus Palatinus.
His teachers in Tours and Paris Roscelin the nominalist William of Champeaux. It was so critical of his teachers so much to reject them. To remedy their errors opened a school in Paris in 1108 on the hills of Saint Genevieve, despite the opposition of master William.
attended, then, for some years the school of Anselm of Laon (1150 - 1117), then in 1113 he returned to Paris to teach instead of William in the meantime had retired to San Vittore.
In this period falls in love with Heloise, his disciple and in 1116 the wife illegally raising the decomposed reaction of Fulbert, the uncle of Heloise. This was forced to become a nun in the monastery of cloistered Srgenteuil, Abelard took refuge first in 1118 in S. Denis, where he wrote his treatise on the Trinity, which was condemned by the Synod of Bern is instigation of Soissons in 1121.
Despite his misfortunes to his lectures always had a large number of pupils!
In 1140 he was condemned by the Council of Sens, and was welcomed by Peter the Venerable at Cluny which prepared him to be reconciled with Bernard and his main rival to the church.
His life is known dall'autobiografia dal titolo "Historia calamitatum mearum".
Abelardo ha esercitato sui posteri una enorme influenza!
Egli insegna che la teologia non deve limitarsi a commentare la Sacra Scrittura, ma deve utilizzare la dialettica che aiuta lo spirito umano a comprendere la fede e a dialogare con i filosofi.
Questo principio lo mise in contrasto con le scuole monastiche e soprattutto con Bernando.
Nel secondo libro della Theologia cristiana fa un’appassionata apologia dei filosofi. Nel Dialogo sostiene che l’etica pagana è così perfetta che gli autori cristiani non devono avere nessun timore di assumerla nella riflessione morale cristiana. Anch’essa, infatti, indica in che consiste il supremo bene e come conseguirlo.
Non ci Abelardo be surprised if you are the moral problems with the rigor of logical reasoning.
E 'follower of Augustine, but does not believe the specificity of Christian morality, while maintaining their independence, dividing it into fides, caritas et sacramentum.
In the chapter on charity includes both moral and theological virtues that those cardinals. Replaces the prudence with science and considers natural virtue and grace given by or infused.
In the Treaty of ethics, philosophical work, denies a moral too objective, emphasizing that too much of the material element and disregard for the psychological conditions.
Abelard teaches the importance of the personal factor, intention and responsibility. The development of his morality is strictly based on the intention.
On the interpretation of the intention to correct Abelardo form of objectivity in the moral culture of the time which tended to reduce human action to mere superficiality, materialism moral in this penitential books. The transition from the morality of the quality of the intention provoked strong reactions.
prioritizing the intention is going to deny the possibility of intrinsically evil acts. Bernardo was mainly to argue with Abelard. It was difficult to maintain a balance between conscience and law, between the right intention and objective norm. According to Abelard
what determines good and evil is the intention, consent, consciousness. The act can not be regarded in itself virtuous or sinful, it becomes the intention. Abelardo
This principle leads to independent consciousness from objective moral laws. He poses also the problem of sin moving in the intimate relationship with God distinguishes itself from sin, vice and evil action of the soul. The defect of the soul consists in the inclination to agree to what is forbidden or prohibited. Only intentional consensus is that the sin is not doing what needs to be done. The bad news is that action
fatta ma non voluta o preterintenzionale. Il pericolo consiste nella possibilità che ognuno possa farsi una legge universale ed eterna.
Per Abelardo la regola immanente e assoluta della moralità è costituta dalla coscienza individuale, una specie di soggettivismo morale, Se la moralità di un atto è essenzialmente interiore, la regola della moralità è data dall’adeguamento dell’atto alla legge di Dio. Il problema è la conoscibilità di tale legge.
L’elaborazione morale che dopo Agostino si era sviluppata sul rapporto tra legge e storia, ponendo l’interiorità come luogo in cui tale rapporto viene posto in maniera corretta o sbagliata, entrò nella riflessione medioevale attraverso Anselmo Abelard and becoming the real moral problem and that is: the subject is called to make the mediation between good-act story, placing themselves in a conscious and free moral order.
In this period are not treated the first case developed on his conscience.
In the second half of the century. XII makes a kind of synthesis between all these trends since the beginning of the century. He was born the genre of judgments and the Somme, as well as the theological treatises. It takes the body that is the need to gather and report, along with biblical passages expressing the faith, even the interpretation of these had given the fathers. The Summe Sententiarum were veritable encyclopaedia of Christian doctrine, essential tools for studying and teaching in the Middle Ages. Among the most famous
Sentences include those of Anselm of Laon (1050-1117) and Peter Lombard (d. 1159).
moral theology seems to be no reasoning with this cross: if in the second book is the embryo of a general moral - free act, sin -, morality is present in the special m: Christ was the theological virtues? what are they? What is love? is higher than the commandments? what are they? In Book IV of the sacraments, and it comes as a result of penance and marriage. In the moral judgments of Lombard does not occupy a certain specific place: dogma and morality are intimately connected. That is the moral of the Sentences is centered on positive values: not the sin and prohibitions but on Christian charity and the dignity of the image of God We can understand the importance of the Sentences of Peter Lombard when one considers that the commentary of them will be a compulsory subject for training of all doctors in theology from the beginning of the century. XIII until near the end of the XIV.
In his treatise on virtues, vitiis de, de Donis Spiritus Sancti, written in 1161, Alan of Lille (d. 1202) used for the first time the term theologia moralis. He points out the idea of \u200b\u200bnature and through it creates a balance with respect to moral intention of Abelard, teaching that the content of the intention is determined by natural law as illuminated by faith. Even
this author raises the question of value for the Christian virtues of natural sign of the difficulty of integrating with each other theological virtues and moral virtues.
The moral teaching of Alan of Lille is characterized by the development of culture and the search for a return to the sources of the Gospel.
3. The thirteenth century
During the thirteenth century, giving more opportunities for contacts with the Near East, the intensification of commercial exchanges, socio-cultural changes within the Christian world. In particular it may be recalled: the consolidation of the bourgeoisie, this independence of the power politico di fronte a quello religioso, l’affermarsi un "certo spirito laico" nella vita sociale.
Per la riflessione teologica il sec. XIII è il secolo d’oro, il cui culmine fu senz’altro Tommaso (1224-1274), la cui riflessione fu preceduta e accompagnata da quella dei maestri parigini, della scuola francescana e di Alberto Magno.
Dal tempo di Agostino lo sviluppo teologico è più o meno ristagnato o si è completamente esaurito nel ripetere, sunteggiare e commentare. Con il sec. XIII ha inizio, favorita dalla situazione socio-politica, una nuova fase creativa, dove trovano sistemazione organica tutta la riflessione teologica dei secoli precedenti con appropriati approfondimenti.
Tre fatti importanti hanno is significantly influenced the Christian morality:
- The founding of the university,
- The foundation of the mendicant orders
- The discovery of Aristotelian philosophy.
Around the middle of the century we find the birth and development of the "Franciscan School" with Alexander of Hales (1185-1245) and the "Dominican School" with Albert the Great (1295-1280).
4. St. Bonaventure Bagnoreggio (1218 - 1274) was born in
Bagnoreggio (VT) in 1218 and died in Lyon in 1274. At baptism he was called John and, as his father's name was Giovanni di Fidanza Fidanza was called. Etrò the Franciscan order in 1243 taking the name of Bonaventura. He completed his theological studies in Paris where his master s Alexander of Hales. In 1248 he began teaching as a baccalaureate in 1254 and was promoted magister. Never got the professorship to the opposition of the secular against the religious teachers. Even St. Thomas will be involved in the same issue. In 1257 there was an intervention by the Holy See that dipanò the issue. That same year, Bonaventure was elected master general of the order and was never able to occupy the chair at the Sorbonne. In 1273 he was appointed bishop of Albano and a cardinal. E 'doctor of the church since 1588.
Bonaventure has composed many works of a philosophical nature, theological, exegetical, ascetic and oratory. Those theological precede ascetic-mystic. His exegesis is yet informed style Platonic Augustinian off for reserving space for the new acquisition and especially Aristotelianism, but rejects as a system.
he wrote a commentary on the Sentences, the Breviloquium, Journey of the Mind to God, Journey of the Mind in himself and the three routes. In the latter work suggests the famous three-way: the purgative, the illuminative el'unitiva, designed not as a separate and later, but parts of the synchronic movement
true God He does not assign a separate place to the moral considerations, but exposes the following is the order of that of A. Lombardo of Hales.
Bonaventure makes limited use of philosophical categories and is reluctant to make use of moral philosophers. He exalts the primacy of theology, philosophy and declares its ancillary belief that reason is unable to produce adequate if a metaphysical philosophy is not illuminated by the light of faith. Belief in the revealed truth must be the origin of all philosophical speculation. He shows that all the sciences, and especially artri philosophy, theology need help to reach their perfection. For
Bonaventuta the moral problem is reduced to the journey of the mind in God, it follows that all theological discourse is ethical, because the most important thing we do is good.
therefore does not accept the division of speculative theology and practice, rejects the development of a distinct moral theology within the universal theological knowledge. This dissociates from the master of Hales who, in his Summa stated otherwise.
Master Franciscan supports the idea that theology has a mainly emotional and spiritual and is a knowledge that leads to love, because he has to make them more good. This principle has the undeniable merit of strongly defend the unity of theological knowledge.
Moral theology, theology as a whole is intended to lead to holiness. This approach does not allow to consider Bonaventura Christian activity as the subject of a studio speculativo e scientifico, impedendogli l’elaborazione di una teologia morale come scienza dell’agite.
Per il dottore serafico il punto di partenza di ogni riflessione teologica e sempre e solo Cristo (cristocentrismo), Verbo di Dio, fonte di tutte le scienze e supremo esemplare. Cristo è anche centro della vita morale. Ne segue che il suo insegnamento e la sua vita sono il fondamento e la norma ermeneutica dell’agire morale.
Ogni creatura viene da Dio e può ritornare a Dio seguendo gli esempi di Cristo. Dio è il principio movente, la regola dirigente e il fine che da quiete non solo di ogni essere, ma di ogni atto.
Ne segue che l’agire e retto se è: a Deo. Secundum Deum e ad Deum!
Dio è il fine verso cui tende la nostra volontà informata dalla carità, assolutamente necessaria perché l’azione possa essere buona e meritoria. L’uomo, immagine di Dio, deve agire conformemente alla carità e alla volontà di Dio che si manifesta nella legge naturale. Le azioni quotidiane che non sono informate alla carità sono moralmente indifferenti.
Tutto l’insegnamento di Bonaventura è informato alla tradizione agostiniana e alla spiritualità francescana.
Di fronte al pericolo di un dualismo di pensiero cristiano insito nella scoperta dell’aristotelismo, egli ha inteso salvare l’ideale cristiano di un sapere unico, innestato attraverso la fede nella scienza divina, in una unità not confused, but organically ordered
Franciscan spirituality, then helped him to consider the individual moments of learning as progressive steps towards full union with God, who is only love.
It 's true that the moral act requires the participation of reason, which seeks the moral law inherent in the principles of natural law, an expression of the eternal law, but the man's journey to God is not only on an intellectual level: it also requires the contribution of the will enlightened by the divine light. And 'thanks to this light that every opinion and every rational free choice are intrinsically ordered and directed to Being represented by absolute values, and as truth as well.
not only the intelligence is enlightened by God, but the determination is inherently inclined towards the good. This is the synderesis that, enlightened by God, guide the assessment of the individual conscience to conform to the supreme good choices.
The will, which has the free will is the faculty which is determined by itself in view of the glory of God, beyond good only natural.
moral action, according Bonavntura, depends very much on the virtue that defines how the permanent inclinations of the will to act rightly. The virtues are natural if there is not really the grace of God with their theological or infused virtues. These hanno il potere:
- di favorire lo sviluppo delle abitudini virtuose,
- di sopraelevare le virtù naturali esistenti,
- di comunicare la possibilità di compiere opere perfette.
Sotto l’influsso della grazia, le virtù illuminano l’anima e la conducono verso Dio. I doni dello Spirito Santo a loro volta perfezionano le virtù. Alla perfezione, poi, si giunge per gradi, purgante, illuminante e perfettiva. Al di là di tutto c’è la vita contemplativa.
Le fede dispone alla carità, la speranza dona la confidenza in Dio. Le virtù cardinali, invece, sono mezzi che permettono all’uomo di agire secondo le esigenze della carità. La giustizia regola i rapporti interpersonali.
In conclusion we can say that Bonaventura concept of God as the ultimate cause of all things, which are intrinsically ordered to Him man, the image of God, reach the fullness of meaning in full possession of God in man
is constitutively in the possession of supernatural desire for happiness, but can not reach with only nature and therefore in need of grace. The Christian experience come to fulfillment when the Holy Spirit with the gift of wisdom, it combines the soul to God
We can say that for Bonaventure the moral life is the mystical experience. Moral experience reaches its full meaning when emotions dell’uomo viene trasformata in Dio. La vita morale allora coincide con la imitazione mistica di Cristo.
La profonda unità tra teologia e vita, la sapienza del cuore e della mente e della mente, di teologia morale mistica, fanno assurgere la riflessione teologica di Bonaventura a una sintesi completa della vita.
I punti chiave della sintesi teologica di Bonvntura sono:
- l’esemplarismo cristologico,
- il primato della carità,
- il volontarismo.
I suoi successori Duns Scoto e Guglielmo di Ockham portarono quest’ultimo elemento alle estreme conseguenze.
5. Tommaso D’Aquino (1224-1274)
Nacque a Roccasecca di Aquino (FR) nel 1224 e morì Fossanova (LT) in 1274.Compì the first studies in the monastery of Monte Cassino. Li perfected in Naples in the general study of Dominicans.
joined the Order in 1244 and in 1245 he was sent to make the philosophical and theological studies first in Paris and then to Cologne where his teacher St. Albert the Great. In 1252 he began teaching in Paris, first as a bachelor and then as magister. From 1257 he was attached to the Sorbonne university faculty.
In 1260 she left teaching to become the first secretary of Urban IV and Clement IV onwards. From 1268 to 1272 he returned to teach in Paris and finally left to take the direction of the general study of Naples. Invited by Gregorio X al Concilio di Lione, morì a Fossanova (LT) mentre era in viaggio nel 1274. Fu proclamato dottore della chiesa nel 1567.
Trasmise la sua dottrina in varie opere: Commentari alla Sacra Scrittura, Commentari filosofici, Commentario alle Sentenze, De malo, De virtutibus, De veritate, Summa contra gentes, Summa Theologiae. Tommaso fu un autore fecondissimo.
Tommaso fu un grande filosofo, ma soprattutto fu teologo. Nel Commento alle Sentenze sostiene che la teologia ha un carattere eminentemente speculativo, ha cioè come fine la contemplazione della verità. Questo lo sostiene contro la scuola francescana e contro il suo maestro Alberto Magno.
Certamente la teologia è anche pratica, perché la Sacra Scrittura, fonte primaria del suo studio, offre numerosi insegnamenti che riguardano i comportamenti pratici. L’aspetto pratico deve lo stesso essere trattato con metodo speculativo.
Il concetto di teologia introdotto da Tommaso è essenziale per la elaborazione di una dottrina morale cristiana, fondata sui principi dedotti della rivelazione, organizzato sul carattere scientifico della teologia nel suo insieme. L’Angelico sviluppa questi principi nella Summa Theologiae.
La Summa è l’opera più riuscita e rappresentativa dell’intero pensiero di Tommaso. Di carattere espressamente teologico, redatta in epoca matura, si pone come testo di introduzione degli studenti alla teologia.
Un trattato di teologia deve occuparsi di Dio: as being in itself and as a principle of things as well, that is the ultimate aim of the creatures in Christ as a way to bring him to the fallen man. The Summa
contains an in regulating the moral life as extensive as the other treaties, acts as the original contribution in relation to other theological contribution of the time.
The distinction from the rest of the theme of moral theology is explained in the prologue of the "first secundae", where a definition of highly original and important man, "man is created in the image of God, intelligent, free, and having power over their acts (for if potestativum).
Thomas, after treating of God and of his powers, goes on to talk man, that can be considered the beginning of his act.
Man and anthropology, the angel had already spoken in the first part (qq. 75-102) had, that is, human speech as it was created by God in the second part describes how the ' man must be through their actions.
The large discussion of the moral in man and its evaluation, and the various conceptual explanations that are deducted, the whole issue remains speculative. In other words, Thomas has had a major theoretical effort to give the Christian to know the characteristics of science, not merely to repeat when already held by "auctoritates. However
Thomas prevail in the attention to the needs auctoritates than speculative, this is because there is a greater attention to the authority of faith over the authority of the intellect.
reflection of Thomas as the school thought proceed with the proposal of the things known, and thus by authoritative statements (auctoritates) to seek to arrive at a fruitful synthesis.
This is the pattern of treatment of the moral thought of Thomas. Before secundae: After having dealt with the end or the bliss (beatitudo) which tends to every man (qq. 1-5), switch to treat the acts by which it is pursued il fine. Gli atti umani in se stessi: sono quegli atti volontari propri dell’uomo, la loro psicologia e la moralità (qq. 6-21) e gli atti comuni con gli animali o istinti. Si passa a parlare della passioni (qq. 22-48) e i principi degli umani, che sono: interiori (gli abiti buoni o virtù e doni e cattivi o vizi e peccati) (49-89), esteriori: la legge e la grazia (90-114), che hanno origine fuori dall’uomo, ma influiscono sul suo agire.
Nella Seconda parte si tratta degli particolari: gli atti comuni a tutti gli uomini (le virtù teologali (qq 1-46) e quelle delle virtù cardinali (47-170) e gli atti propri di alcune persone (171-170).
La morale di Tommaso è una morale della virtù and gifts and do not and duties, obligations and sins.
As previously stated, the development of Thomas is essentially moral theology, because it is part of its general discourse about God 'theocentric.
dell'exitus It is inscribed in the scheme of creation by God and the creatures of God reditus reditus is the return to the origin of creation through human action. E 'in this truth that moral action, that his starting point in creation, is its thickness.
Man, created in the image of God and empowered to manage their own acts, must make the most of its orientation to God in Jesus Christ. If reality
morality is the human reality on the way to God, it follows that the end is the fundamental category of moral reflection of Aquinas. In fact, the Treaty on the end is the fulcrum of the moral system of the Angelic Doctor.
Having placed the Treaty on the top end of the two sections that divide the second part is a profound insight, it means that happiness is the necessary and immutable principle that serves as a standard for each concrete action and is the scientific basis of such activities. All
act acquires meaning and value because it refers to. It 's the end of that specific acts: both as moral as humans.
Man realizes his vocation in history and in the world and is responsible to God and others for implementing the fundamental design of which has its implementation in time, but that transcends time.
Like any creature, man has an end, his good, to be implemented, because this is God's creation. It follows that he has a plan established by God to bring to fruition with his free activity.
The design for all is the eternal law of God which man is made a sharer. The eternal law of God is the rational level, the order of the universe through which the divine wisdom directs all things to their end.
Man, as a rational creature, partecipa del piano della divina provvidenza.
Partecipazione: è una categoria fondamentale nel discorso morale di Tommaso. Essa è decisiva per capire la natura umana. Infatti l’uomo, in quanto essere capace di autodominio (per se potestativum), non si inerisce nel piano divino in maniera solo esecutiva, non secondo una conformazione automatica alla lex aeterna, ma secondo il suo libero orientamento al bene.
Detta partecipazione si realizza in due modi: nella legge naturale e nella legge dello Spirito.
La prima e fondamentale partecipazione alla legge eterna avviene attraverso l’obbedienza alla legge naturale, in forza della quale la persona diviene consapevole della sua radicale vocazione.
Essa è il sigillo di God in us, which is full of promise and responsibility. It is not an imposition from outside, but is inscribed in the depths of human nature.
core of natural law is the commandment: "do good and avoid evil" (bonum et malum facednum vitandum).
The natural law, as formal participation in the eternal law, is distinguished from natural law, which is simply a material interest.
This distinction leads Thomas to overcome the limitations of the earlier tradition: claiming that the man, in obedience to natural law, is fully realized in history and through history.
Human law is positive law, the law enacted by man in the common good.
The second contribution is through the gift of the Spirit (Spiritus lex): through it man can effectively seek to fully implement the plan of God
law or the law of the spirit of the Gospel is a new interior law infused in the hearts of the faithful, who as a constitutive element for the gift of the Holy Spirit with His grace.
It is light, but also the energy which enables the faithful to realize that the Spirit makes it clear, that is his vocation.
Under such dual participation, the believer is enabled to cooperate in the plan of God This capacity through the assessment of consciousness, which is defined as participation truth of the human and divine, human and divine knowledge.
Consciousness is the third fundamental category of moral thought of Thomas.
His dignity lies in the fact that it is an irreplaceable element of the human person to the realization of God's plan for Thomas only the instrument which is issued by the interior principle of knowledge, namely consciousness, is personal.
The foundation of the doctrine of Thomas is on his conscience:
- Participation,
- The way this is realized in the subject.
It follows that the verdict of conscience is indispensable criterion of human action, however, is not an absolute rule.
are no criteria decisive moral or the effectiveness historical reasons or ideals and ahistorical.
At this point we can say that for Thomas the two main components are drawing moral law and grace.
Man finds the rules of moral action in his own rational nature, is:
- as a person,
- as a member of a family
- as a social being.
Human laws, then, explain the general principles of natural law.
The reason has to stimulate human ingenuity to produce the additional information and useful supplements to human nature.
the production of human acts contribute to a number of principles, which are internal and external.
The internal principles, which aiutano le facoltà a rendere più facile e perfetta la produzione degli atti, vengono definiti da Tommaso "abiti", che ha il senso di qualità operative, inteso in senso lato:
- abiti buoni son le virtù alle quali sono legati i doni,
- abiti cattivi sono i vizi che si oppongono alle virtù.
La virtù è un abiti operativi buono e principi esclusivo di bene. Vi sono virtù teologali o infuse e quelle cardinali o morali. Inoltra ci sono le virtù intellettuali speculative, le quali tendono a perfezionare la mente perché possa apprendere la verità. Esse sono: intelligenza, scienza, sapienza e prudenza.
Tommaso articola la teologia morale sulle virtù teologali (fede, speranza e carità) and those cardinals (fortitude, temperance and justice) among which prudence has a very important role.
Aquinas borrowed from Aristotle certainly has many elements of his moral development, for example, the adoption of the scheme of the four cardinal virtues, but transforms it by deriving its vitality from the gifts of the Holy Spirit.
However, the recruitment scheme of the cardinal virtues has prevented Thomas properly develop the virtues of humility and religion are fundamental to the redeemed man.
Christian existence, as has the law's the law of the Spirit of life in Christ, should be regarded not as obedience to the precepts, but as the implementation of the inner powers that it has and that are the virtues.
They are means to human self-orientated and moral perfection in the theological sense.
addition to virtuous habits, they do tend to the good man, there are bad habits, vices (pride, greed, vanity, envy, anger, greed, sloth, gluttony and lust), which detract from the well. They, according to Thomas are the leading causes of sin.
Augustine defined sin as "aliquid factum est, dictum vel, vel concupitum eternam contrary to law." Thomas will collect the inheritance. Distinguishes them, however, in venial sins and mortal.
measure of perfection is charity says Thomas. All other virtues are necessary for perfection, but they are not constituting such as charity, which has the distinction of uniting with God It is the most important of all virtues, and without it there is no virtuous life.
You can then say without fear of contradiction that the ultimate criterion and definitive progressive acquisition of charity. Contribute to its acquisition: the grace, the sacraments, devotion to Christ, prayer.
The moral of Thomas is developing a more complete was never attempted.
6. William of Ockham (1280-1349)
was born in Ockham, a small village on the outskirts of London in 1280 ca. and died in Monaco of Bavaria in 1349.
young when he entered the Franciscan order. He studied at the famous University of Oxford. Qualified as a baccalaureate in 1318, wrote a commentary on the Book of the Sentences of Lombard, where he was highly critical of previous theological reflection.
These criticisms cost him a summons to Avignon in 1324 to defend the accusation of heresy. The process lasted several months with controversy. In 1328 he left Avignon, escorted by William Michael of Cesena, then minister general of the order.
The controversy over the power of the Pope and the Emperor is in favor of the Emperor Louis IV, detto il Bavaro (1287-1347).
Perseguitato dalla chiesa si rifugiò presso l’Imperatore a Monaco dove morì di peste.
Fu un valido filosofo e un altrettanto valido teologo. La sua influenza sul pensiero occidentale è enorme e la sua riflessione ha contribuito in modo determinante nell’elaborazione del pensiero moderno. Tutta la riflessione morale successiva è sotto il suo influsso.
Caratteristiche del suo insegnamento sono:
- L’estrema coerenza,
- Un rigore esigente.
Tanto da essere considerato un grande dialettico.
Scrisse: Opera plurima in 4 volumi; Opera politica in 3 volumi; Opera philosophica in 7 volumi; Opera teologica in 10 volumi.
La riflessione di Ockhm è una limpida testimonianza della grave crisi che attraversò il pensiero morale cristiano all’inizio del 1300.
Mette in discussione:
- L’armonia tra fede ragione,
- La relazione tra grazia e libertà,
- La possibilità per la ragione di affrontare e risolvere grandi problemi della metafisica e dell’antropologia.
Presupposti fondamentali della scolastica medioevale.
Con la riflessione di Ockham ebbe inizio «lo spirito laico», perché fece suoi i principi gli ideali della insorgente proclamazione della dignità della uomo, della potenza creativa dell’individuo, della nuova cultura umanistica che il risorgimento and it will grow.
Ockham is a free spirit and with great freedom goes in search of authentic values \u200b\u200bsuch as truth, justice and the common good.
The starting point of his reflection is the absolute omnipotence of God He can do everything that is not contradictory. E 'infinitely free, so that in Him there can be no obligation whatsoever.
His act does not know the rules either internal or external, that is the cause of every moral obligation, while transcending this category.
From this theological conception results in a new way of understanding the human person, especially his freedom, defined as the absence of any obligation. Ockham sees
the universe actually consists of individual, existing or separately, joined together without the setting up of absolutes. God is an absolute, but the man is. These at the time that there can not exist, otherwise it would compromise the principle of non-contradiction.
The fact that man is free not certified with the reasoning, it is clear from the experience. Freedom is the ability to do or not do something, to determine a choice of the will.
This is the power by which, according to indifference and contingency, he can produce an effect. May, that is, knowing and not knowing that there is no difference to the will power. Being free means supreme indifference and absolute spontaneity.
Faced with the freedom of man all possible objects are on the same plane. This also applies to God, against whom he makes no intrinsic and ontological reference from within the man.
The moral obligation to do so only because man is essentially contingent, but also the moral Roman contingent.
Good and evil are not absolute, but contingent reality that have their origin in the will of God's goodness and evil are terms that connote a itself, but a divine precept. They imply the will of God
Evil is not simply: 'aliquid facere to deceased oppositum faciendum obbligatur aliquis. "
The rule of human action is the will of God, which sets out what is wrong and what is good. Post the omnipotence and absolute freedom of God, the whole created order, including the moral law is completely contingent.
The essence of good and evil is not on the arbitrary will of God, because God is not real distinction between essence, intelligence and will. Whatever God wants, he wants with his intelligence infinitely perfect. It follows that the moral obligation has its ontological foundation in the very essence of God
L’uomo con la sola ragione non può conoscere l’ordine morale stabilito da Dio, a meno che non sia Dio stesso a rivelarlo. E Dio lo ha rivelato.
L’ordine morale rivelato è opera della sua potenza ordinata, ma in Dio esiste anche una potenza assoluta la quale potrebbe stabilire altri ordini morali, altrettanto razionale con l’ordine esistente.
La volontà di Dio, fondamento dell’obbligo morale, si rende manifesta all’uomo attraverso la legge morale, alla quale l’uomo, libero e responsabile, può obbedire o disobbedire e quindi meritare o demeritare. Senza la libertà non ci potrebbe essere azione lodevole o riprovevole.
Ockham da grande importanza alla libertà di indifferenza, namely the freedom to make or do the opposite.
The alternative is between the moral to obey God's command or to obey the goals chosen by criteria such as their willingness to act.
The moral then is closely connected with religion or rather the faith. For the knowledge of God's will, that is, the law begins with the revelation and right reason, which is aware that some other prohibited actions are controlled. This means that there is an inner law, which shows us our duty. This is the categorical imperative or the voice of God
The "right reason" and its obligations are binding directly to man. The first precept di detta legge è: è necessario metter in pratica la tal cosa perché è comandata dalla retta ragione, altrimenti l’atto morale sarebbe per lo meno indifferente.
La coscienza in questo contesto si pone come il giudizio che riferisce un atto ad un ordine o ad un divieto divino. Detto giudizio è emesso dalla ragione, ma ha il suo ultimo fondamento nella fede che accoglie la rivelazione della volontà di Dio.
L’insieme dei precetti rivelati da Dio costituisce il diritto naturale, che è assoluto, immutabile e comune a tutti gli uomini. Viene mutuato dal decalogo.
Da detti obblighi scaturiscono i fondamentali diritti umani, che secondo Ockham sono: la libertà e la proprietà. Se l’uomo è free before God, it follows that it is much more free in front of human political and religious authority. Freedom is the starting point of the entire reflection ackhamista.
From this principle flows the theory of human rights. But what will happen next.
Human laws, positive, civil or religious, can not be against the law of God their area relates to the acts indifferent and therefore does not bind in conscience.
It can be said without fear of contradiction, that the moral Ochìkam type is positive and legalistic. If morality consists in obedience to the law, you must ensure that the law exists.
The moral of Ockham poi si interessa solo degli atti, ne segue che possa disattendere il ruolo della grazia, la quale diviene una condizione esterna all’atto, esigendosi poi per ogni merito la libera accettazione di Dio.
L’aspetto più rilevante della riflessione morale di Ockham è costituito dalla dal fatto che egli nega che il riferimento a Dio sia parte integrante e sostanziale dell’esperienza morale umana. La sua riflessione morale non è più teologica come quella di Tommaso.
Il suo modo di determinare e risolvere il problema morale è in sintonia con la negazione di ogni possibile elaborazione di una teologia naturale. Detta impossibilità costituisce il punto di partenza di ogni riflessione morale.
La riflessione morale di Ockham carries within it the "ontological rupture" between man and God, which in fact led to fideism, the radical skepticism and even atheism. Determining the current of thought that argues that the moral foundation is increasingly impossible.
In this way we can understand why the definition of consciousness is not Ockham longer refers to the ultimate end or happiness, and it refers to the commanded or forbidden. It is not considered in the overall context of the history of the person, but as a moment in itself, which stands between freedom and the will of God
proibente precepts or virtues are seen as an aid to better implement the decision freely for better grip and overcome obstacles. They are placed under the freedom and lose their moral value, no longer a firm determination to act, essential to ensure the perfection of moral actions and having to perform. The grand synthesis
operated by Thomas did not have a proper development in later centuries.
Two events marked a profound theological reflection later in the moral history of the church:
- The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) commissioned by Pope Innocent IV who established the requirement of annual confession.
- The sentence handed down and some Thomist theses from the universities of Paris and London and papal authority.
Century XIV expands the shade of many convictions and Aristotelianism and Thomism and controversy between Thomists and Scotists. All these reasons led to the fall of that creative tension that had characterized the two hundred.
slowly emerges current defined humanism, which will place the man at the center of the universe as opposed to medieval theocentrism.
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